The Computer Algorithms Accelerates the Production of Flu Vaccine

For scientists, producing an effective vaccine against seasonal flu in a timely manner is still being felt hard. Now, Dr Dimitris Papamichail a computer scientist from the University of Miami (UM), and a team of researchers from Stony Brook University have developed a rapid and effective approach to produce a new vaccine strain of influenza virus. The researchers hope this discovery to develop new technologies and provides an efficient method to confront the threat of seasonal epidemics are emerging every year.

The new approach uses computer algorithms created by Papamichail and scientists from Stony Brook University. Where the algorithm is able to design viruses that serve as live vaccines, which are then synthesized to specification. The new method is called Synthetic Attenuated Virus Engineering (SAVE). The findings, titled "Live attenuated influenza virus vaccines by computer-aided rational design" has been published online by Nature Biotechnology.

"We have been able to produce an entirely novel method to systematically design vaccines using computer algorithms," says Papamichail, assistant professor of Computer Science in the College of Arts and Sciences at UM and co-author of the study. "Our approach is not only useful for influenza; it is also applicable to a wide range of viruses."

One way to make an anti-viral vaccine is to weaken a virus to the point where it cannot cause sickness, and then use the weakened virus as a live vaccine. Although such weakened viruses often make very effective vaccines, they suffer from the possibility that the virus can sometimes mutate to regain virulence.

In this study, the researchers used a novel approach to weaken the influenza virus. They create a synthetic genome of the virus containing hundreds of changes in the genetic code. Computer algorithms indicate the best places in the genome, to make changes, such that the new synthetic genome code for proteins provide the exact same genome "wild type", but in smaller amounts. According Papamichail, this process allows a wide margin of safety. "The possibility of all the changes reverting themselves to produce a virulent strain is extremely unlikely," he said.

Although the new sequence and the original sequence both direct the synthesis of proteins exactly the same, the new sequence gives a weakened version of the virus, due to the reason that the live vaccine capable of eliciting an immune response against the wild-type virus. But not strong enough to cause the symptoms of the disease. This method is commonly used to weaken the influenza virus, and enables the creation of safe, effective vaccines against many types of viruses.

In the future, the researchers wanted to explore the application of those techniques, with the ultimate goal of methodical design and computation of initial synthetic organisms with predetermined functions and controlled properties, with broad applications in medicine.

Similarly, research conducted at Imperial London showed that the virus can be transmitted before the appearance of symptoms. If the findings are applicable to humans, it means that people can pass on the flu to someone else before they know they are infected, so it is very difficult to prevent an epidemic. *** [SCIENCEDAILY | DEDI RISKOMAR | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 13092012]

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The Light can Generate Lift?

The light that can work to produce power that can make aircraft flying. With proper design, uniform flow of light encouraging the objects are very small like the wings of an airplane to raise the fuselage to the air.

Physicists in the United States have demonstrated the optical analogue of an aerofoil--a "lightfoil" that generates lift when passing through laser light.

Optical Lift on a Nano Scale.  
(Picture from: http://www.popsci.com/)

The demonstration, which comes more than a century after the development of the first airplanes, suggests that lightfoils could one day be used to maneuver objects in the vacuum of outer space using only the Sun's rays. "It's almost like the first stages of what the Wright brothers did," says lead author Grover Swartzlander, a physicist at the Rochester Institute of Technology, New York, whose study appeared December 5, 2010 in Nature Photonics. (Scientific American is part of Nature Publishing Group.)

The new trick is more attractive light than an ordinary push: It creates a more complicated force called lift, the evidence as a flow in one direction to move an object vertically. Air foil or airfoil generates lift force, when the engine turning the propeller and the aircraft moves forward, its wings are tilted causing the plane ride.

Light foil is not intended to maintain a fixed plane in the air during a flight from one airport to another airport. But the unity of the tools are very small it may be used to power the micro machines, transporting the particles are very small or even allow the methods of the steering system on the solar sail.

The shape and internal properties of a tiny plastic 'lightfoil' bend laser light. The angles of the incoming and outgoing light (red) determine the direction in which the object moves (blue). (Picture from: http://www.newscientist.com/)

The light may have an unexpected lift starts from a very simple question, Swartzlander said, “If we have something shaped wing and we shine with the light, what happens?” Modeling experiments showed the researchers that an asymmetrical deflection of light will create a lift force is very stable. “So we thought it best to do an experiment,” said Swartzlander.

The researchers created a very small rods shaped like an airplane wing, on the one side and flat on the other side of the winding. When the foil-micron-sized air foil is immersed into the water and hit with 130 milliwatts of light from the bottom of the container, foil-foil began to move upward, as expected. But the bars are also beginning to move sideways, perpendicular to the direction of incoming light. Symmetrical balls are very small lift force does not show this effect, as the team found.

Optical lift force is different from the aerodynamic lift force with an air foil. An airplane flies because air flowing more slowly under its wings using a pressure greater than the air that flows faster above. But in light foil, lift force created within the objects when the beam of light through it. thus transparent air foil shape causes the light is refracted differently depending on where the light was passed, which causes the bending beam within their momentum that generates lift. *** [SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN | SCIENCERAY | NEWSCIENTIST | SEPTI | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 27092012]

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Beautiful and Dynamic Cabriolet

Competition-powered cars are not only owned the car a coupe with the closed-roof, but also a car with the open-roof. It can be seen from the number of car manufacturers are always complementary hardness variant with the roof open or convertible type. One of these manufacturers is the newly introduced Audi RS5 Cabriolet.

Just as with the coupe version, RS5 Cabriolet has a similar exterior design. The front there is a trapezoidal grille with a honeycomb motif and the main lights using LEDs. Party Audi also retains side skirts, outside rearview mirror with chrome accents, 19-inch aluminum rims are sporty, rear spoiler, until the LED rear lights that use.

What distinguishes naturally soft-top roof that when folded. According to Audi, the roof can be opened in 15 seconds and closes in 17 seconds. Even the process of opening and closing the roof can be done while driving in a speed of 50 km/h.

Front view of Audi RS5 Cabriolet. (Picture from: http://www.autoblog.com/)

As with the exterior, the interior is still RS5 Cabriolet looks the same as the RS5 Coupe. You'll find the steering wheel crossbar three with a flat bottom, covered with leather upholstery and Alcantara or also available with optional Nappa leather combination, and there is also a chrome-accented interior elements.

Rear view of Audi RS5 Cabriolet. (Picture from: http://www.autoblog.com/)

Audi also wants the car with the soft-top roof is a dynamic car. Therefore, it is mounted on the car V8 FSI engine with capacity of 4,200 cc is capable of spraying power 450 hp. Naturally-aspirated engine is accompanied by a dual clutch transmission with S-Tronic 7-speed. For the performance itself, RS5 Cabriolet is capable of reaching speeds of 100 km/h in 4.9 seconds. Then for the maximum speed is limited to 250 km/h. But consumers can ask for the maximum speed increased to 280 km/h.

Interior view of Audi RS5 Cabriolet. (Picture from: http://www.autoblog.com/)

Audi engineers also did some modifications in the technical sector to support performance this RS5 Cabriolet. Like the chassis 20 mm lower than the A5 Cabriolet, and suspension system with DRC (Dynamic Ride Control), an optimized brake system with 365 mm discs at the front, and the last ESC stability system with Sport mode that can be disable.

V8 FSI engine of Audi RS5 Cabriolet. (Picture from: http://www.autoblog.com/)

Audi will release this car to the premium market starting early 2013 in Germany at a price of 88,500 euros, or about U.S. $ 113,000 (Rp. 1.07 billion). But you can see the Audi RS5 Cabriolet will be one of the stars at Paris Motor Show 2012 event. *** [DIH | AUTOBLOG | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 14092012]
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Most Poisonous Jellyfish in the World

Cobra, blue ringed octopus, scorpion, or Brazilian wandering spiders are animals that are very toxic. However, on top of all that, there is one other animal that has the most deadly poison. The animal is the box jellyfish. Jellyfish venom is the most deadly in the world.

Australian box jellyfish. (Picture from: http://silveroftheluna.wordpress.com/)

Box jellyfish (class Cubozoa) are cnidarian invertebrates distinguished by their cube-shaped medusae. Box jellyfish are known for the extremely potent venom produced by some species: Chironex fleckeri, Carukia barnesi and Malo kingi are among the most venomous creatures in the world. Stings from these and a few other species in the class are extremely painful and sometimes fatal to humans.

The poison would directly attack the heart, nervous system, and skin cells. Worse, box jellyfish venom so painful that the people affected will experience shock, heart attack or drowned before he could get out of the water.

Those who survived the attack box jellyfish will experience pain weeks after the contact with him. In fact, humans do not have a chance of surviving if the poison has spread through the blood vessels.

According to the study, the vinegar contains acetic acid that can paralyze jellyfish's nematocysts that have not entered into the bloodstream (though this does not relieve pain).

Box jellyfish are extremely poisonous to live in the waters around Asia and Australia. *** [JAM | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 27092012]

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Smart Cars Could be Used as a Private Theater

Certain concept cars stand out because of some slick green technology that could someday make it into actual production. Small car brand Smart (Daimler's microcar brand) is unveiling an electric car concept. Designed as a city car for a hip, urban market, the Smart Forstars gets its name from its all-glass roof, which allows for a bit of stargazing. It also serves as a bit of wordplay regarding the video projector mounted in its front bonnet that can be used to display stars of the Hollywood variety. The projector is designed to be operated by a smartphone and is linked to a high-quality sound system with speakers in ventilation openings behind the doors.

This Smart Forstar is an electric car that seems to have developed a particularly serious identity disorder. On the one hand, it’s an electric SUC (Sports Utility Coupé). On the other hand, it’s a mobile video projector for staging impromptu cinema outings on any handy blank wall.

Smart Forstar. (Picture from: http://www.devehiclesprofile.com/)

This reddish fancy (rouge alubeam) coupe which only has two seats has a roof made ​​of glass. Supported magneto-electric motor of 60 kW (80 bhp) magneto-electric motor from the new smart BRABUS electric drive is an increase over production smart cars and provides 135 Nm (100 ft-lbs) of torque from the 17.6 kWh lithium ion battery. Top speed is reported as 130 kph (80 mph). By using Michelin tires measuring 245/35 ZR 21. Four wheels, 3-spoke design are attractive.


Compared to the Smart ForTwo, the Smart Forstars concept is thirty inches longer and almost six inches wider. The exterior styling of the Forstars concept is instantly recognizable as a member of the Smart family, but according to Smart many of the striking design elements on the concept will be part of the automaker’s future design language.

Interior of Smart Forstar. (Picture from: http://www.techcinema.com/)

"Electric cars from the Smart is the cheapest in Europe. Not only emission free and fast, Forstars lets you set the perfect interior temperature with smartphones. Moreover, with a powerful battery and an integrated projector, Smart Forstars can transform any backyard into animation movie opens," says Dr Annette Winkler, Smart boss.

This electric car will start its first debut at the 2012 Paris Motor Show (September 29 - October 14, 2012). *** [DIH | MOTOR TREND | GIZMAG | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 21092012]

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CCTV, Initially to Rocket Monitor

First CCTV (Closed-circuit television) system was installed by Siemens AG at Test Stand VII in Peenemunde, Germany in 1942. This CCTV system used to observe the launch of the world's first ballistic missile Vergeltungswaffe-2 (V-2).

German engineer Walter Bruch was responsible for the design and installation of these systems. With CCTV, officers were able to monitor the test from short range without danger, watching the damage and other problems that may have otherwise gone undetected.

In the U.S. the first commercial closed-circuit television system became available in 1949, called Vericon. Very little is known about Vericon except it was advertised as not requiring a government permit.

CCTV recording systems are still often used at modern launch sites to record the flight of the rocket, find possible causes of the failure of the work function. Larger rockets fitted CCTV allowing pictures of stage separation to be transmitted back to earth via radio communication.

In September 1968, Olean, New York was the first city in the United States who use a video camera in the business world, especially in an effort to prevent crime. CCTV connected to the monitor in the Olean PD. Police Department became the frontline in the fight against crime using CCTV technology.

Currently, the use of CCTV cameras in public spaces to minimize the risk of crime. CCTV cameras cover most of the urban areas. CCTV installed at every street corner to make it easy to police monitor the point where are experiencing congestion or crime, so that treatment can be carried out immediately.

The use of CCTV cameras is not limited to the public sphere alone but has been widely used by individual persons or companies for a variety of purposes. *** [WIKIPEDIA | SEPTI | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 27092012]

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The Secret of Fire Tornado

Blazing ... fire tornado in Alice Springs, Australia. (Picture from: http://www.thesun.co.uk/)

Fire tornado as high as 30 meters that recorded a video camera Chris Tangey of Alice Springs Television on 16 September 2012 is a rare phenomenon. Incidentally, Tangey, which is conducting the survey location near Curtin Springs in Australia, saw a vortex of fire that rose high into the sky.

"Tornado sounded like a jet fighter aircraft that pass, but there's no wind around Us," said Tangey told the Northern Territory News.

The fire tower was dancing on the landscape for nearly 40 minutes. Tangey and his team from the TV station motionless witness the rare natural events. Although rare, a fire tornado also occurred in several other regions of the world, including in Aracatuba city, Brazil. Drought experienced during the three months the city created the perfect conditions for the fire tornado.

This rare event occurs when the fire stirred by a strong flow of dry air to form a vertical vortex. Tornadoes can form a vortex of hot air around or in the pillar of fire.

The phenomenon is often dubbed as the fire demon can be revoked as high as 15 feet up a tree root. Generally, tornado of flames reaching 30-50 meters tall with a diameter of several meters and lasted a few minutes. But the huge fire tornado can reach hundreds of meters with winds of 160 kilometers per hour. Tornadoes of this magnitude can take more than 20 minutes.

Most tornadoes form when the fire fire fire met with warm air moves upward. Large fires can create a vortex of fire the size, intensity, and duration were varied.

In 1923, the Great Kanto earthquake in Japan triggered a storm of fire and a city-wide fire vortex generating enormous. Within 15 minutes the giant fire tornado that killed 38 thousand people. *** [REUTERS | LIVESCIENCE | KORAN TEMPO 4005]

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Dashing and Handsome Classic Bike

Completing lineup its models (such as the Victory Judge, High-Ball, Jackpot, Vegas 8-Ball, Hammer 8-Ball and Kingpin) that had spread all over the world, Victory Motorcycles relatively new motorcycles manufacturers from Iowa (that was founded in 1997), launched its newest product 2013 Victory Boardwalk.

2013 Boardwalk bit like its predecessor, the High-Ball, but also similar glimpse Victory 8-Ball. This bike apparently directed to replace the Kingpin to be halted production.

This 2013 Boardwalk looks more manly than the previous series. Classic impression will be retained through the use of side-wall tires and white rims 16-inch chrome spokes motif.

A significant change is in the rear mudguard (anti splashing-water on the back.) Figure cruiser design in collaboration with Harley-Davidson uses the engine capacity of 1,740 cc V-Twin could reach a maximum torque of 110 lb-ft (149 Nm).

Plus with 6-speed gearbox that drives the rear wheels through a carbon belt, 2013 Victory Boardwalk becoming more macho.

Dual exhaust on 2013 Victory Boardwalk looks seen on the right. While the wheels a little different with the white on the right and left. This slightly tinny exhaust note emanates from the chromed slash-cut pipes. Another Chrome elements of the Victory Boardwalk include the headlight, gauge housing, handlebars, exhaust, belt guard, engine and ignition covers, turn signal housings, and fender struts. A powerful, durable LED lighting in the brake lamp and turn signals provides excellent visibility.

Low, comfortable, versatile along with an impressive collection of accessories that make it a comfortable 2-up cruiser for quick get-aways across town or down the open road.

2013 Victory Boardwalk. (Picture from: http://www.ridermagazine.com/)

A bike for unstressed cruising, with a new two-piece seat, a low seat height, large unencumbered floorboards and the widest handlebars of any Victory model. Want to extend your trip, ride 2-up and carry some extra gear? Easy. It takes just minutes to add several new Lock&Ride accessories to customize your Victory Boardwalk and turn it in a light Bagger.

This latest generation of Victory big motors is sold at a price of 15,499 U.S. dollars for the U.S. market. Although prices in the European market has not been announced officially. There are two options available on white and black, such as Pearl White, Gloss Black, Solid Black and Solid Pearl White.

Long on style and long between the axles, the Boardwalk provides a relaxed ride. (Picture from: http://www.ridermagazine.com/)

Work result of Victory Motorcycles at this time was excellent. U.S. media review said, Victory is one serious challenger of Harley-Davidson in the coming decades. *** [DIH | MOTORCYCLE-USA | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 31082012]

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Know the Seismic Waves

Earthquake is a jolt in the earth's crust as a companion symptom of tectonic, volcanism activity, or debris that occurs in the earth. At the time of the earthquake, we can feel the vibrations or shocks on where we stand. Earth rocked sideways and upwards. Vibration or shock is seismic waves.

Seismic waves are very low frequency waves that spread through the earth. The emergence of the seismic waves caused by a shift in the Earth's crust segments or can be generated from the explosion at the top of the crust.

The rate of amplitude and direction of propagation of seismic waves depends on the type of seismic waves and the material in its path. Seismograph record the amplitude and frequency of seismic waves and generate information about the earth and the subsurface structure of the earth.

Types of seismic wave. (Picture from: http://www.physics.unc.edu/)

Seismic waves generated naturally as a result of shifting crust (plates) of the earth to the attention of seismologists (seismologists) and physicists to determine the center of the earth quake. While the seismic waves generated artificially as a result of an accidental explosion on the upper crust of the earth useful to geologists and physicists to study the state of the earth of the earth and help search for the sources of fossil fuels.

Seismic waves are divided into two types. First, body wave. Body wave consists of primary wave (commonly abbreviated as P waves) and secondary waves (commonly abbreviated as S waves). Body wave propagates through the earth outwards from the epicenter.

P waves typically arrive at the surface of the earth as a jolt. P waves move faster than S waves, so the P wave is the first wave recorded on seismographs (earthquake recording devices) and became the first wave of people in the area felt the quake. Because it is the first, the wave is called the primary wave.

Seismic wave mapping of the interior of the Earth. (Picture from: http://www.physics.unc.edu/)

P waves (also called compressional or longitudinal waves) travels through solids, liquids (liquid). and gas, and thus going through the whole body of the earth. P waves cause the transmission medium is a liquid, solid, or gas moving back and forth in the direction of the path of deployment. When P waves traveling through rock, the waves move / push tiny rock particles back and forth in the direction of wave propagation. The result is a series of strain and pressure back and forth. This incident is similar to what happens when we pull or a slinky stretch horizontally.

In the earth, the P wave propagates at a rate of about 6 kilometers (3.7 miles) per second at the surface of the rock to about 10.4 kilometers (6.5 miles) per second near the earth's core (approximately 2,900 kilometers below the Earth's surface ). Accretion rate of the P wave to the depths of the earth due to increase hydrostatic pressure, which corresponds to changes in the composition of the rocks. In general, the accretion rate resulting P wave propagates with a curved path.

Seismic waves (Earthquakes) probe the interior of the Earth. (Picture from: http://www.physics.unc.edu/)

The appearance of the P wave was accompanied by a wave of S. S waves are also known as shear or transverse waves. The rate of propagation of the S wave and P wave arrival time resulted in two distinct waves separated when detected by seismographs. Separate arrival times can be used to determine the location of the epicenter.

S waves are transverse shear wave like a wave on the pull rope. Material moves up and down or from side to side. Like the P waves, S waves also spread to the curved trajectory.

S waves can only be spread through a solid medium for liquid and gaseous medium can not sustain shear stress. In the earth, the rate of increase of the S wave about 3.4 kilometers (2.1 miles) per second at the earth's surface up to 7.2 kilometers (4.5 miles) per second near the limit of the earth's core. S waves cause the dots on solid medium moves back and forth perpendicular to the direction of the spread of the wave. When the S waves move, these waves move rock particles outward and push the particles perpendicular to the wave trajectory. It results in the first period roling associated with earthquakes.

The second type of seismic waves are surface waves. Surface waves sometimes resemble waves in the water that moves up and down the earth's surface.

Animation of seismic waves. (Picture from: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/)

This animation shows the seismic waves generated by the 2002 Denali Fault earthquake. P-waves are shown in red; S-waves are shown in blue; Surface waves are shown in yellow. Phase arrival times are indicated on the vertical (Z) seismograms displayed at the top of the animation.

Seismograms are shown for:
COLA: College, Alaska
PFO: Pinyon Flat Observatory, California
SSPA: Standing Stone, Pennsylvania
CTAO: Charter Towers, Australia
DBIC: Dimbokro, Cote d'Ivoire
LBTB: Lobatse, Botswana

This animation is running 100 times faster than the waves actually traveled. Animation of PC program Seismic Waves written by Alan Jones.

Surface wave propagates in the Earth's surface at a rate of approximately 3.5 to 3.9 kilometers per second and slower than body waves. Because the surface wave has a low frequency, long duration of propagation, the width and amplitude of the surface wave is a kind of the most destructive seismic waves. Surface waves move the rock on man-made structures of the building foundation.

Surface wave consists of Rayleigh waves and Love waves. Rayleigh waves are surface waves similar to the rise and deployment of water surface waves. The existence of these waves was predicted long ago by a British physicist Lord Rayleigh in 1885. He was the first to express mathematically the existence of these waves.

Rayleigh waves traveling through the free surface in the form of elastic solids in the earth. The movement of these waves is a combination of longitudinal compression and dilation which then produce an elliptical motion at points on the surface of the earth. In all seismic waves, Rayleigh waves most often (all the time) to spread out and produce a long-duration waves on a seismograph.

Meanwhile, Love waves are surface waves that cause horizontal shifting of the earth surface. The word "Love" is used in the name of the wave is taken from the name of AEH Love. He was a British seismologists who first predicted the existence of these waves and mathematical modeling in 1911.

Love waves are usually spread a little faster than the Rayleigh wave. Love waves spread when a solid medium near the Earth's surface has a vertical elastic properties are diverse. Medium shift entirely by Love waves perpendicular to the direction of the spread of the wave. Energy deployment Love waves produce strong record on seismic stations. *** [GUN GUN GUNAWAN | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 13092012]

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Design and Buy HD via the Web.

Harley-Davidson (HD) is rolling out its 2013 model lineup. It includes Harley-Davidson Dyna Street Bob restyled model.

Dyna Street Bob 2013 gets a new twist that makes it more stylish appearance. Bobber (motorcycle's designation) has new face look, more beautiful.

2013 Harley-Davidson FXDB Dyna Street Bob. (Picture from: http://www.totalmotorcycle.com/)

There are no changes to the design, the model still selected classic tall handlebars with chrome models with round headlights. New style of alteration seen in the rear fenders are formulated neater. Juxtaposed with a round filter cover models to reinforce the aura of a classic two-tone color.

2013 Harley-Davidson FXDB Dyna Street Bob. (Picture from: http://www.totalmotorcycle.com/)

Besides the battery cover is made simpler to make it look more elegant. Place the license plate to the side and not on the back like a big bike. Handlegrip got an extra special rubber that serves to reduce the vibrations that make better driving comfort.

2013 Harley-Davidson FXDB Dyna Street Bob. (Picture from: http://www.totalmotorcycle.com/)

With Twin Cam 96 V-Twin engine, Dyna Street Bob 2013 is also part of the H-D1 program. Where consumers can choose a new style to design it on the web, and booked directly into the factory Harley-Davidson in Milwaukee, USA. HD has prepared 2,000 combinations on their website.

2013 Harley-Davidson FXDB Dyna Street Bob. (Picture from: http://www.totalmotorcycle.com/)

"As part of the restyle, new touch to the rear fender, air filter cover to the battery. There are also H-D1 program that allows owners to buy Bob Street with different style as you wish, "said Tony Pink, Harley-Davidson Styling Manager. *** [DIH | TOTAL MOTORCYCLE | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 14092013]

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Ozone and Life on Earth

Ozone (O3) is a molecule composed and bonded of three oxygen atoms. Bonds between the oxygen atoms in the ozone molecule is rather weak compared to the oxygen molecule consists of two atoms (O2), so one of the three oxygen atoms easily escape and react with other molecules.

Ozone was first discovered by Christian Friedrich Schonbein in 1840. Naming ozone is derived from the Greek, ozein meaning smell. Ozone is known as a gas that has no color.

The use of ozone has been performed for more than a century ago. Ozone is used for various purposes, ranging from clean drinking water, sterilization of raw food materials, to elaborate a variety of toxic organic compounds contained in wastewater. In the field of medicine, ozone is more often used after the discovery of the ozone producing equipment for medical sterilization by J Hansler in the mid-20th century. However, ozone is a toxic substance. This gas is very reactive and corrosive (rapidly cause corrosion on metal) and hazardous to human health if inhaled in large quantities.

Ozone is found naturally in the stratosphere. Approximately ninety percent of Earth's ozone is in the stratosphere. Stratosphere is one of the layers of the earth's atmosphere at an altitude between 20-50 kilometers above the earth's surface. The ozone layer in the stratosphere was first discovered in 1913 by Charles Fabry (1867-1945) and Henri Buisson.

The ozone layer in the stratosphere naturally formed mainly through a process fotodisosiasi where the sun has a very important role in this process. Ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun was able to break an oxygen molecule (O2) to form two single oxygen atom. Then every single oxygen atom is bonded to an oxygen molecule to form a molecule of ozone (O3).

Diagram illustrating the ozone-oxygen cycle. (Picture from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/)

The presence of beneficial ozone in the stratosphere protects the earth from the dangers of ultraviolet emission (UV) excessive sun. This ozone protects life on earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Because it is protecting the ozone in the stratosphere that is also called good ozone.

Ozone in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun. This radiation has a wavelength below 400 nanometers. The spectrum of this radiation (located at wavelengths between 290 nanometers and 320 nanometers) or better known as UV-B radiation. Increasing doses of UV-B radiation reaching the earth resulting in increased cases of skin cancer, lower yields, and ruin the lives of plankton and fish larvae.

Reaction formation and decomposition of ozone occurs naturally in a state of balance and continuously for centuries. Most of the ozone is formed and decomposes in the equatorial region where there are tropical rainforests were quite extensive. By nature, nature has arranged transport phenomena that will bring the gases contained in the earth's surface to the layer above it and distribute ozone into the higher latitudes, and eventually accumulates in the polar regions.

The process of ozone depletion. (Picture from: http://sopf.org/)

However, the balance of the formation and decomposition of ozone has been disrupted due to the increase of ozone-depleting substances or materials (ozone depleting substances / ODS), so the rate of decomposition of ozone faster than the rate of its formation. Damaging substances / thinning of the ozone layer in the lower stratosphere is produced by human activities on the earth's surface. These substances are capable of spreading to the stratosphere. This causes a decrease in the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere.

Ozone depleting substances contain some combination of chemical elements chlorine, fluorine, bromine, carbon, and hydrogen are called halozarbon. The compound consists of only chlorine, fluorine and carbon called cholorofluorocarbon (CFC). CFCs are widely used because it is stable with low toxicity and non-flammable. Because CFCs have chemical and physical properties suitable for coolant, solvents, and heat insulation, this material is widely used by industrial refrigerator, AC (air conditioner), gas booster (spray), foam plastic, fire extinguisher material, the solvent in the industry, and electronic equipments cleaning. If this material is released into the atmosphere by atmospheric transport phenomena, these materials will be lifted and diffused into the stratosphere. In this layer the material will be dissociated by ultraviolet radiation from the sun and breaks down into chlorine gas was very active damaging the ozone layer.

The climate system is complex, meaning that the ozone hole does indirectly alter the surface temperature and climate of the Earth. (Picture from: http://theconversation.edu.au/)

The monitoring of the ozone layer in the stratosphere has long made the developed countries since 1957. In 1985, researchers from the UK found a reduction in the total amount of ozone in the stratosphere during the Antarctic spring. In 1987, a monitoring station in Antarctica recorded a decrease in the total amount of ozone to be less than half the amount of ozone measured in 1970. This drastic decrease in ozone depletion has caused or is called the ozone hole (ozone hole).

Global emissions of ozone-depleting chemicals (CFCs, halons, HCFCs, and others) and their non-ozone depleting substitutes (HFCs) from 1950 to 2050, expressed as Gigatonnes of CO2-equivalent per year. The blue hatched regions indicate the emissions that would have occurred, in the absence of the Montreal Protocol, with 2–3% annual production increases in all ozone-depleting chemicals. Shown for reference are emissions for the range of CO2 scenarios from the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios. (Picture from: http://theconversation.edu.au/)

The discovery of the ozone hole has prompted the formulation of an international treaty known as the Vienna Convention 1985. The agreement aims to protect the environment and human health due to the depletion of the ozone layer. Then in 1987 established the Montreal Protocol. In the protocol was approved reduction and elimination of the production and consumption of CFCs, halon, and other similar substances that contribute to depleting the ozone layer. *** [THE CONVERSATION | SAVE OUR PLANET FOUNDATION | DEDE NURROSYID | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 13092012]

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